“There is a difference between merely recognizing students’ struggles or offering a generic kindness for kindnesses’ sake, what renowned feminist and educator Nel Noddings would call “caring-about” instead of “caring-for.”” — Janice Niemann (2024)

Definition

The ethic of care emphasizes the role of empathy, compassion, and responsiveness in determining moral conduct. According to Noddings (2013), it is “an invitation to see things from an alternative perspective,” (p. 32), thus calling on leaders to look beyond their own needs to those of others. The ethic of care emphasizes a relational and context-sensitive approach to professionalism and is focused on the nuances of interpersonal interactions (Gilligan, 1982) and the interdependence between individuals.

Care ethics stress the real-world application of ethics, in contrast to other moral theories that prioritize theoretical concepts or idealized situations. According to Held (2006), providing care necessitates making moral choices in real-would circumstances based on an awareness of the dynamics and connections at play. Traditional ethical theories that place a higher priority on impersonal laws, norms, and individual rights, such as the ethic of justice, are antithetical to the ethic of care. Leaders who follow an ethic of care abhor notions of superiority and the hierarchical approach that dominates classrooms, boardrooms, and managerial structures. Instead, a feminist lens is applied to leadership and pedagogy (Arrey & Reynolds, 2023).

Moral theories like utilitarianism and deontology, which frequently place a higher value on universality and impartiality than on connections and care, are especially criticized by care theorists. According to Tronto (1993), a stance of care is in opposition to an unbiased, neutral viewpoint and is instead based on paying close attention to and responding to the needs of others.

Leaders who follow an ethic of care practice empathy and are attuned to their emotions and the emotions of those in their care. Leaders foster a culture of empathy and relational accountability, and they prioritize the well-being and development of their students and colleagues. Louis’ (2016) review of the literature on the ethic of care identified three characteristics of caring relationships:

• Situational — where care is not universalistic or rule-bound but rather specific to the situation in which it might be offered.
• Motivational displacement — where the person providing care behaves in a selfless way such that the need of the other person supersedes their own needs.
• Authentic — where caring requires genuineness by the person offering care and must be experienced as genuine by the person receiving care.

Instilling a care ethic has long been a component of education. According to Noddings (2012), the ethical philosophy of care dictates that educators’ professional behavior be driven by a crucial dedication to the academic and general well-being of their students. Noddings contended that educators must embrace and take responsibility for fostering close, meaningful, and caring relationships with their students, given the degree to which the quality of care affects students’ learning and academic success.

Educational leaders who follow an ethic of care demonstrate compassion for others, encourage open communication with students, work collaboratively, and offer support in the form of affirmation and encouragement (Owens & Ennis, 2005). The ethic of care approach to educational leadership is not without difficulties; while caring relationships should ideally be reciprocal, relationships between a teacher and a student and educational administrator and faculty and staff are inherently unequal.

The summary table below highlights the main objective of an ethic of care, its core principles, and the benefits of adopting this framework for analyzing ethical dilemmas for decision-making in educational leadership.

Historical Origins

Care has deep roots in human history, evident in ancient societies where individuals cared for family members and community members. In ancient Greece, care was often associated with the concept of philanthropy, which encompassed notions of benevolence, kindness, and concern for others’ well-being (Nussbaum, 1996). Philosophers such as Aristotle emphasized the importance of care in the context of ethics and moral philosophy. Aristotle’s concept of philia — or love, friendship, and affection — underscored the significance of interpersonal relationships and the moral obligation to care for others (Aristotle, trans. 1999).

Foundation of Care Theory

The ethic of care was developed in response to traditional moral theories that ignored feminist critiques of them (Baier, 1994; Held, 2006, 2015; Walker, 1989). Research has shown that women tend to engage in caring more than men (Barnes, 2012), and it has been established that women consider care a moral virtue (Hanen & Nielsen, 1987; Kittay & Meyers, 1987). Dimensions of the ethic of care can be traced back to the work of feminist philosophers and social theorists in the 1970s and 1980s, who critiqued initial studies that gendered moral judgements and perpetuated discriminatory beliefs about how relationships of care and connection influence decision-making; for example, where a boy would make a “just” decision, a girl seemed “unsure” (Gilligan, 1982, p. 204). Exploring individual caring relationships that lead to understanding how and why moral decisions are made, regardless of gender, became the foundation of care theory (Mays, 2020). It is based on the idea that moral judgments should be made with others’ welfare, empathy, and compassion in mind (Kohlberg, 1984).

Carol Gilligan, Nel Noddings, and Other Care Scholars

One of the leading figures in the development of the ethic of care is Carol Gilligan (1982). In her influential book In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development, Gilligan argued that there is a different moral voice or perspective that women tend to rely on when making decisions. This voice is centered upon relationships, empathy, and care rather than abstract moral principles. Gilligan identified that educational leaders who follow an ethic of care tend to risk self-harm and their own self-interests as they advocate against the injustices of institutional policies.

The ethic of care in relation to education is commonly associated with feminist, educator, and philosopher Nel Noddings (2002), who, for the past 35 years, has been studying and developing an ethic of care, prioritizing the importance of relationships in education. Noddings (2015) argued that “all teachers are moral educators [with a responsibility to produce] better adults” (p. 235). Noddings (2003) further developed the concept of care in her book Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education. Like Gilligan, she argued that care is a fundamental aspect of human nature crucial for ethical living and that ethical actions should be guided by the principles of care, compassion, and empathy, rather than universal rules. From Gilligan (1982) and Nodding’s (2013) perspective, an ethic of care encompasses a wide range of dimensions, including physical, emotional, and social.

In 1990, Collins framed the ethic of caring within Black feminist theory as foundational to African American women’s epistemology, which, she argued, encompasses history, culture, and experiences with expressiveness, emotion, and empathy. In 2009, Bass’s study of five female African American school principals showed a tendency to assume the role of “other mother” in students’ lives, and they frequently admitted to breaking the rules in the best interests of the children they cared for, risking their own self-interests and making sacrifices to combat injustices in institutional policies.

Social Justice and Culture

Care is increasingly recognized as a central component of social justice movements. Care ethics makes the case that moral behavior ought to consider each person’s wants and interests in addition to advancing justice and fairness (Held, 2006). Joan Tronto (1995) developed a framework for understanding care as a political and ethical practice, essential for building more just and equitable societies. She argued that

Care may be ubiquitous in human life, but it has remained hidden from the conceptual lenses of social and political thought. As a result, to place care at the center of human life requires that we rethink many of the assumptions that we make about social and political theory. At the outset, care begins from a different understanding of human nature and human interaction (p. 142)

It is important to note that different cultures have their own understandings and practices of care, shaped by cultural norms, values, and traditions; for example, some Indigenous cultures prioritize collective forms of care that extend beyond individual relationships to encompass community and ecological well-being (Nouwen, 2012). Within the Secwépemc nation, for example, the yecwmín̓men were considered the caretakers of the surrounding lands and resources; the Secwépemc recognized, respected, and honored one another as family and relatives throughout Secwepemcúĺecw (Ignace & Ignace, 2017).

Situated Within Educational Leadership Theory and Practice

“Social inclusion, respect, care, and social justice are at the heart of the ethical city.” — Barrett et al. (2016, p. 5)

Although Gilligan and Nodding’s ethic of care is based on the relationship between the educator and the student, their ethical framework can also be applied to educational leadership, as it has important theoretical consequences for leaders in educational settings. The ethic of care has the power to influence educational leadership and promote an empathetic and compassionate culture. For example, during the 2020 global COVID-19 pandemic, several inspirational female leaders selflessly led countries and universities through crisis by centering relationships, generosity, and ingenuity. New Zealand’s prime minister, Jacinda Arden (Simpson et al., 2021), and British Columbia’s provincial health officer, Bonnie Henry (Hayhurst, 2020), were applauded for their care-based approach.

Care-oriented leaders use restorative practices — which put healing, understanding, and accountability first — to resolve conflict or harm within the learning community (Wachtel & McCold, 2000). To mend fences and promote a sense of community, leaders provide forums for discussion, empathy, and atonement (Thorsborne & Blood, 2013). Jean Lipman-Blumen’s (2000, 2017) connective leadership theory, which aims to build and sustain community through reciprocal relationships, offers a complementary leadership model for the ethic of care. Similarly, Gerri Perreault’s (2005) metaphor of leadership as friendship, while admittedly idealistic, offers a beacon of hope for educational leaders with its optimistic view of human nature.

Feminist Leadership

Stajkovic and Stajkovic (2023) viewed ethics through the presence of a female leadership advantage — a concept first proposed by Helgesen (1990), which suggested that women, in comparison to men, might be more effective leaders when organizations are in crisis — and an ethics of care, which they dubbed an ethics of care leadership. Within their framework:

ethics means that care is wanted and unobtrusive, care is a value, and leadership is the practice of attentiveness toward others, responsiveness to their needs, and cultivating caring relationships (p. 700).

Stajkovic and Stajkovic’s (2023) empirical research showed that an ethics of care leadership in the context of the urban revitalization crisis in the United States was associated with better economic health, including the reduction of education and poverty gaps and evidenced leadership that balances social and economic prerogatives. Results from 272 US cities over nearly four decades revealed that cities with female mayors were associated with greater racial inclusion and better economic health. They found that ethics of care leadership (ECL) occurs as:

an activity that involves expenditure of physical and mental energy; it is not a mere attitude, such as “I do not care for this or that”, nor is it just a warm feeling for someone. ECL is a behaviour aimed toward the well-being of a relationship and those in the relationship… the interests of those caring and those who are cared-for are interwoven rather than independent or competing, and caring is voluntary rather than contractual (p. 702).

Educational Leaders and Care Theory

The culture of educational institutions is greatly influenced by those in formal leadership positions. Educational leaders who follow an ethic of care deal with injustices by using their power to bend the rules and regularly risk their reputations for those they serve who can offer them little in return (Bass, 2009). They prioritize building strong relationships with faculty, students, and other members of the community to create the groundwork for cooperation, trust, and effective communication, which helps leaders understand the needs and concerns of the members of their community (Beatty & Brew, 2018).

Care ethics-guided educational leaders understand that students are multifaceted people with a range of needs and experiences. By attending to students’ academic demands and their social, emotional, spiritual, and physical requirements, leaders can assist in supporting students’ and colleagues’ holistic development and well-being (Woloshyn et al., 2019). Advocating for fairness and inclusion and removing systemic barriers to learning and opportunities for achievement are key components of care-oriented leadership in education (Giroux, 2005).

Benefits of Ethic

One of the central tenets of care ethics is the cultivation of empathy and compassion. Noddings (2003) contended that caring requires individuals to attune themselves to the experiences and emotions of others, leading to a more compassionate and empathetic approach to moral deliberations. Viewing leadership through the lens of care can help individuals make ethical choices that prioritize the well-being and interests of others. By considering the potential consequences of their actions and the impact on others, individuals can make more informed and considerate decisions. This empathy has been shown to positively impact individuals’ personal and professional relationships, leading to increased compassion and support (Raab, 2014). A care-based approach to leadership requires open, honest, and empathetic communication. By actively listening to others and seeking to understand others’ needs and concerns, research has shown that educational leaders demonstrate enhanced communication skills and ability to resolve conflicts (Lin, 2023).

Some critics have argued that the emphasis on personal relationships and contextual responsiveness may be less relevant in situations involving large-scale social, political, and economic structures and that care theory may not always be applicable in complex situations where multiple stakeholders are involved, for example, in resource allocation decisions. However, recent research by Stajkovic and Stajkovic (2023) provided credible evidence to counter this claim, showing that female mayors practicing an ethic of care leadership across 272 regions in the United States resulted in improved social and economic well-being for both givers and receivers.

By prioritizing the needs and feelings of others, individuals can experience increased satisfaction, happiness, and overall improved mental well-being (Tronto, 1993). Caring involves “a relationship between at least two persons, the cared-for and the caregiver” (Tronto, 1993), which leads to the development of a sense of community and cooperation within groups. By promoting empathy and concern for others, communities can become more cohesive, resilient, and sustainable (Barret et al., 2016).

Drawbacks of Ethic

The ethic of care has been criticized for its limited applicability beyond certain contexts, such as intimate relationships or caregiving professions, raising questions about its adequacy as a comprehensive ethical theory (Held, 2006). Critics further argue that leaders who practice an ethic of care may undervalue the individual autonomy and agency of others, particularly in situations where caring obligations conflict with individual rights or freedoms, as was argued by Kittay (2011), who advocated for the rights of people with disabilities, including the right to make independent decisions even if they need the physical assistance of others.

Other scholars have argued that care ethics provides inadequate guidance for resolving complex moral dilemmas or conflicts of care and lacks clear principles or decision-making procedures (Walker, 2007). Unlike other moral theories that offer clear principles or rules to guide ethical decision-making, care ethics may be perceived as lacking clarity in providing specific moral guidelines (Sander-Staudt, 2011). This ambiguity may make it difficult for individuals to apply care ethics consistently across different contexts. Care theory has also been criticized for prioritizing emotions over rational analysis and impartiality (Baier, 2005), which critics have cautioned may result in inconsistent and unpredictable moral judgements and favouritism (Sander-Staudt, 2010). When individuals rely on empathy and emotions to guide their ethical judgments, they may inadvertently perpetuate stereotypes, which can result in discriminatory behaviours.

Some scholars have argued that care ethics perpetuate gender essentialism by associating caring virtues with femininity and overlooking the caring contributions of men (Noddings, 2013; Tong, 1998). This gender essentialism may reinforce traditional gender roles and limit opportunities for gender equality. Despite the recognition that gender and caring qualities exist on a continuum rather than a male/female binary, recent research suggests that care work in the academy falls disproportionately on women, which was particularly true during the global pandemic, and as a result, women are at risk of higher rates of burnout (Clarke Gray, 2020).

Clarke Gray reiterated the disconnect between academic expectations and personal well-being. She highlighted inherent contradictions within higher education, where students are expected to excel academically and manage their mental health and personal challenges. This pressure can lead to a toxic environment that exacerbates mental health issues, such as anxiety and depression. Clarke Gray argued that universities often fail to create an environment that values and supports all students, regardless of their backgrounds or identities. While more attention has been given to the well-being of students in recent years, there continues to be a disconnect between academic goals and personal well-being (both faculty and students).

Recommended Readings

• “Fostering an Ethic of Care in Leadership: A Conversation with Five African American Women” by Lisa Bass (2009), Advances in Developing Human Resources
• “Is Teaching a Practice?” by Nel Noddings (2003), Journal of Philosophy of Education
• “Ethics of Care Leadership, Racial Inclusion, and Economic Health in the Cities: Is There a Female Leadership Advantage?” by Kayla Stajkovic and Alexander D. Stajkovic (2024), Journal of Business Ethics

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